International students have faced increasingly strict immigration rules, including new restrictions on bringing family members to the U.K.

Starting in January, the U.K. will shorten the post-study stay period for international bachelor’s and master’s graduates from two years to 18 months.

The government has also raised the financial proof requirements for student visa applicants. Students must now show between £1,171 and £1,529 per month for living support, depending on where they study.

According to the report, the economic gains from international students are spread across the country, though some parliamentary constituencies benefit more than others.

The constituency of Holborn and St Pancras, represented by outgoing Prime Minister Keir Starmer, ranked highest. There, more than 11,500 international students contribute over £1 billion to the U.K. economy.

Makerfield, the constituency of likely future Prime Minister Andy Burnham, recorded a net benefit of about £4 million.

Clacton, where Nigel Farage is expected to contest a by-election after stepping down as an MP, saw a net economic contribution of £2.1 million.

Rose Stephenson, Hepi’s director of policy and strategy, said the report provides important evidence for ongoing debates over immigration policy.

“If ministers decide to further reduce international student numbers, they should be clear that there will be economic costs as well as potential political benefits,” Stephenson was quoted as saying in the report.

Linda Cowan, Managing Director at Kaplan International Pathways, noted that the international education market is becoming increasingly competitive.

She pointed out that the “Big Four” study destinations (the U.S., the U.K., Australia, and Canada) have expanded into a broader group of more than a dozen leading global education destinations.

To remain a leader, she said, “a positive and welcoming environment is essential”.

“The U.K. is home to some of the world’s foremost universities, but we cannot rely on reputation alone. We must continue to demonstrate the value of a U.K. education and ensure international students feel welcomed from the moment they consider applying.”